History and development of schools
The concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since
Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since
ancient Greece,
ancient Rome ancient India , and
ancient China. The
Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to
Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the primary education system began in 425 A.D. and "...
military personnel usually had at least a primary education ...". The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that educated citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Empire emphasized efficiency in its war manuals. The Byzantine education system continued until the empire's collapse in 1453 AD.
Islam was another culture that developed a school system in the modern sense of the word. Emphasis was put on knowledge, which required a systematic way of teaching and spreading knowledge, and purpose-built structures. At first,
mosques combined both religious performance and learning activities, but by the ninth century, the
Madrassa was introduced, a proper school that was built independently from the mosque. They were also the first to make the
Madrassa system a public domain under the control of the
Caliph. The
Nizamiyya madrasa is considered by consensus of scholars to be the earliest surviving school, built towards 1066 CE by Emir
Nizam Al-Mulk.
Under the
Ottomans, the towns of
Bursa and
Edirne became the main centers of learning. The Ottoman system of
Külliye, a building complex containing a mosque, a hospital, madrassa, and public kitchen and dining areas, revolutionized the education system, making learning accessible to a wider public through its free meals,
health care and sometimes free accommodation.
The nineteenth century historian, Scott holds that a remarkable correspondence exists between the procedure established by those institutions and the methods of the present day. They had their collegiate courses, their prizes for proficiency in scholarship, their oratorical and poetical contests, their commencements and their degrees. In the department of medicine, a severe and prolonged examination, conducted by the most eminent physicians of the capital, was exacted of all candidates desirous of practicing their profession, and such as were unable to stand the test were formally pronounced incompetent.
In
Europe during the
Middle Ages and much of the
Early Modern period, the main purpose of schools (as opposed to universities) was to teach the
Latin language. This led to the term
grammar school, which in the United States informally refers to a primary school, but in the United Kingdom means a school that selects entrants based on ability or aptitude. Following this, the school curriculum has gradually broadened to include literacy in the vernacular language as well as technical, artistic, scientific and practical subjects.
Many of the earlier public schools in the United States were
one-room schools where a single teacher taught seven grades of boys and girls in the same classroom. Beginning in the 1920s, one-room schools were consolidated into multiple classroom facilities with transportation increasingly provided by
kid hacks and
school buses.
Regional terms
The use of the term school varies by country, as do the names of the various levels of education within the country.
United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations
In the
United Kingdom, the term
school refers primarily to pre-
university institutions, and these can, for the most part, be divided into
pre-schools or
nursery schools,
primary schools (sometimes further divided into
infant schooland
junior school), and
secondary schools. Various types of secondary schools in England and Wales include
grammar schools,
comprehensives,
secondary moderns, and
city academies. In Scotland, while they may have different names, all Secondary schools are the same, except in that they may be funded by the state, or independently funded (see next paragraph). It is unclear if "Academys", which are a hybrid between state and independently funded/controlled schools and have been introduced to England in recent years, will ever be introduced to Scotland. School performance in Scotland is monitored by
Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education.
Ofsted reports on performance in England and Wales.
In the United Kingdom, most schools are publicly funded and known as
state schools or maintained schools in which tuition is provided free. There are also private schools or
independent schools that charge fees. Some of the most selective and expensive private schools are known as
public schools, a usage that can be confusing to speakers of
North American English. In North American usage, a
public school is one that is publicly funded or run.
In much of the
Commonwealth of Nations, including
Australia,
New Zealand,
India,
Pakistan,
Bangladesh,
Sri Lanka,
South Africa,
Kenya, and
Tanzania, the term
school refers primarily to pre-
university institutions.
India
Nepalese teacher and schoolchildren in Pokhara
In ancient India, schools were in the form of
Gurukuls. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. During the Mughal rule,
Madrasahs were introduced in India to educate the children of Muslim parents. British records show that indigenous education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion.
Under the British rule in India, Christian missionaries from England, USA and other countries established missionary and boarding schools throughout the country. Later as these schools gained in popularity, more were started and some gained prestige. These schools marked the beginning of modern schooling in India and the syllabus and calendar they followed became the benchmark for schools in modern India. Today most of the schools follow the missionary school model in terms of tutoring, subject / syllabus, governance etc.with minor changes. Schools in India range from schools with large campuses with thousands of students and hefty fees to schools where children are taught under a tree with a small / no campus and are totally free of cost. There are various boards of schools in India, namely Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), Madrasa Boards of various states, Matriculation Boards of various states, State Boards of various boards, Anglo Indian Board, and so on. The typical syllabus today includes Language(s), Mathematics, Science - Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography, History, General Knowledge, Information Technology / Computer Science etc.. Extra curricular activities include physical education / sports and cultural activities like music, choreography, painting, theater / drama etc.
Europe
In much of continental
Europe, the term
school usually applies to
primary education, with primary schools that last between four and nine years, depending on the country. It also applies to
secondary education, with secondary schools often divided between
Gymnasiums and
vocational schools, which again depending on country and type of school educate students for between three and six years. In Germany students graduating from Grundschule are not allowed to directly progress into a vocational school, but are supposed to proceed to one of Germany's general education schools such as
Gesamtschule,
Hauptschule,
Realschule or
Gymnasium. When they leave that school, which usually happens at age 15-19 they are allowed to proceed to a vocational school. The term school is rarely used for
tertiary education, except for some
upper or
high schools (German: Hochschule), which describe
colleges and universities.
In
Eastern Europe modern schools (after
World War II), of both primary and secondary educations, often are combined, while secondary education might be split into accomplished or not. The schools are classified as middle schools of general education and for the technical purposes include "degrees" of the education they provide out of three available: the first - primary, the second - unaccomplished secondary, and the third - accomplished secondary. Usually the first two degrees of education (eight years) are always included, while the last one (two years) gives option for the students to pursue
vocational or specialized educations.
North America and the United States
In
North America, the term
school can refer to any educational institution at any level, and covers all of the following:
preschool (for
toddlers),
kindergarten,
elementary school,
middle school (also called intermediate school or junior high school, depending on specific age groups and geographic region),
senior high school,
college,
university, and
graduate school.
In the
US, school performance through high school is monitored by each state's
Department of Education.
Charter schools are publicly funded elementary or secondary schools that have been freed from some of the rules, regulations, and statutes that apply to other public schools. The terms
grammar school and
grade school are sometimes used to refer to a primary school.
School ownership and operation
Many schools are owned or funded by
states.
Private schools operate independently from the government. Private schools usually rely on fees from families whose children attend the school for funding; however, sometimes such schools also receive government support (for example, through
School vouchers). Many private schools are affiliated with a particular religion; these are known as
parochial schools.
Components of most schools
Schools are organized spaces purposed for teaching and learning. The
classrooms, where teachers teach and students learn, are of central importance, but typical schools have many other areas, which may include:
- Cafeteria (Commons), dining hall or canteen where students eat lunch and often breakfast and snacks.
- Athletic field, playground, gym, and/or track place where students participating in sports or physical educationpractice
- Auditorium or hall where student theatrical and musical productions can be staged and where all-school events such as assemblies are held
- Office where the administrative work of the school is done
- Library where students consult and check out books and magazines and often use computers
- Specialized classrooms including laboratories for science education
- Computer labs where computer-based work is done and the internet accessed
School security
To curtail violence, some schools have added
CCTV surveillance cameras. This is especially common in schools with excessive gang activity or violence.
The safety of staff and students is increasingly becoming an issue for school communities, an issue most schools are addressing through improved security. After mass shootings such as the
Columbine High School massacre and the
Virginia Tech incident, many school administrators in the United States have created plans to protect students and staff in the event of a
school shooting. Some have also taken measures such as installing
metal detectors or
video surveillance. Others have even taken measures such as having the children swipe identification cards as they board the school bus. For some schools, these plans have included the use of
door numbering to aid public safety response.
Online schools/classes
Some schools offer remote access to their classes over the Internet. Online schools also can provide support to traditional schools, as in the case of the School Net Namibia. Some online classes provide experience in a class so that when you take it you have already been introduced to the subject and know what to expect, and even more classes provide High School/College credit allowing you to take the class at your own pace. Many online classes cost money to use but some are offered free. Stress
As a profession, teaching has levels of Work-Related Stress (WRS) that are among the highest of any profession in some countries, such as the United Kingdom. The degree of this problem is becoming increasingly recognized and support systems are being put into place. Teacher educat increasingly recognizes the need to train those new to the profession to be aware of and overcome mental health challenges they may face. Stress sometimes affects students more severely than teachers, up to the point where the students are prescribed stress medication. This stress is claimed to be related to standardized testing, and the pressure on students to score above average.
Discipline
Schools and their teachers have always been under pressure — for instance, pressure to cover the curriculum, to perform well in comparison to other schools, and to avoid the stigma of being "soft" or "spoiling" toward students. Forms of discipline, such as control over when students may speak, and normalized behaviour, such as raising a hand to speak, are imposed in the name of greater efficiency. Practitioners of critical pedagogy maintain that such disciplinary measures have no positive effect on student learning. Indeed, some argue that disciplinary practices detract from learning, saying that they undermine students' individual dignity and sense of self-worth—the latter occupying a more primary role in students' hierarchy of needs.
